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Abu Ali al-Hasan al-Tusi '''Nizam al-Mulk''' (خواجه نظامالملک طوسی in [[Język perski|perski]]; [[1018]] – [[14 październik]] [[1092]]) wielki [[wezyr]] imperium Tutków Seldżuckich.
== Biografia ==
Urodzony w [[Tus]] w [[Iran|Persia]] i początkowo służący na dworze [[Ghaznawidzi|Ghaznawidów]]. Nizam ul-Mulk był administratorem prowincji [[Khorasan]] od [[1059]] do [[1063]]. W tymże roku przystąpił na służbę do [[Alp Arslan]]a sułtana Tyrków Seldżuckich. Służył mu w latach ([[1063]]-[[1072]]) a po śmierci Alp arslana kontynuował służbę u jego następcy- [[Malik Shah]]a ([[1072]]-[[1092]]).
He left a great impact on organization of the Seljuk governmental bodies and hence the title Nizam al-Mulk which translates as "the order of state".
Aside from his extraordinary influence as vizier with full authority, he is also well-known for systematically founding a number of schools of [[higher education]] in several cities, the famous [[Nizamiyyah]] schools, which were named after him. In many aspects, these schools turned out to be the predecessors and models of universities that were established in Europe.
Nizam ul-Mulk is also widely known for his voluminous treatise on kingship titled [[Siyasatnama]] (The Book of [[Government]]). He also wrote a book titled ''Dastur al-Wuzarā'', written for his son ''Abolfath Fakhr-ol-Malek'', which is not dissimilar to the famous book of [[Qabus nama]].
Nizam ul-Mulk was finally assassinated en route from [[Isfahan (city)|Isfahan]] to [[Baghdad]] on the 10th of [[Ramadhan]] of 1092AD. The mainstream literature says he was stabbed by the dagger of a member of the [[Hashshashin]] sect near [[Nahavand]], [[Iran|Persia]], as he was being carried on his litter. The killer approached him disguised as a [[dervish]].
This account is particularly interesting in light of a possibly apocryphal story recounted by [[Jorge Luis Borges]]. In this story a pact is formed between a young Nizam ul-Mulk (at that time known as Abdul Khassem) and his two friends, [[Omar Khayyam]] and [[Hassan-i-Sabah]]. Their agreement stated that if one should rise to prominence, that they would help the other two to do likewise. Nizam ul-Mulk was the first to do this when he was appointed vizier to the sultan [[Alp Arslan]]. To fulfill the pact he offered both friends positions of rank within the court. Omar refused the offer, asking instead to be given the means to continue his studies indefinitely. This Nizam did, as well as building him an observatory. Although Hassan, unlike Omar, decided to accept the appointment offered to him, he was forced to flee after plotting to dispose Nizam as vizier. Subsequently, Hassan came upon and conquered the fortress of [[Alamut]], from where he established the [[Assassins]].
Another report says he was killed in secret by [[Malik Shah I]] in an internal power struggle. Consequently, his murder was avenged by the vizier's loyal servants of the [[Nizamiyyah]], by assassinating the Sultan. ''<ref>(p17 of {{ISBN|964-303-008-3}})</ref>''
== Zobacz również ==
* [[List of Iranian scientists]]
* [[Persian literature]]
* [[Malik Shah I]]
* [[Alp Arslan]]
[[:Kategoria:Irańczycy i Persowie]]
[[:Kategoria:Urodzeni w 1018]]
[[:Kategoria:Zmarli w 1092]]
[[:ar:نظام الملك]]
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[[:de:Nizam al-Mulk]]
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[[:ja:ニザームルムルク]]
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[[:uk:Незам уль-Мульк]]
[[:ur:نظام الملک طوسی]]
'''Kābul''' (perski|کابل), prowincja usytuowana w centralnym regionie kraju jedna z 34 prowincji afgańskich. Stolicą prowincji jest [[KabulZoroastrianism|m]], będący[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/1651814.stm] równocześnieand stolicąsubsequently całegoalso kraju.a Położonyhome nafor wysokościthousands 1.800of metrów[[Buddhists]] npmand jest[[Hindus]]. jednąThe z[[Arabs]] najwyżejtried połozonychto stolicconquer państwthe świata.area Wielokrotniein zdobywanythe i[[7th niszczonycentury]], przezbut obcychthey najeźdźcówwere adefeated następnieby odbudowywany.the ProwincjaHindu KabulShahi's stanowiof obecnieKabul. administracyjneThe iarea kulturalnewas orazconquered edukacyjne centrum kraju.by
== Warunki naturalne ==
[[Plik:Mountains of Kabul.jpg|thumb|250px|Kabul (miasto)]]
Miasto Kabul połozone jest na szerokości geograficznej północnej 34-31' oraz długości wschodniej 69-12'. Wy niesienie nad pozuiom morza przekracza 1800 m (6000 stóp (feet)) npm. Kabul jest położony w strategicznym miejscu w dolinie otoczonej wysokimi górami (vide fotka) na przecięciu głównych szlaków handlowych ze wschodu na zachód oraz z południa na północ. One million year ago the Kabul region was surrounded from south-east between [[Lowgar]] and [[Paghman]] Mountains; [[Charikar]] in the north and the Ningai Ghar mountains in the west. This region formed an icy sea. In the Silurian time, at the end of ice era, the icebergs are melted gradually and the territory of this region was poured by water under heavy raining. Some deep wells in the region of today's Poli Charkhi in the east part of city are the evidence of that time. Kabul is surrounded by [[Koh-e Paghman]] Mountain from the east, [[Koh-e Qrough]] Mountain from the south-west, [[Koh-e Shirdarwaza]] Mountain from the north-east. Kabul has only one river which is called [[Kabul River]]. Kabul River rises at the Paghman Mountain toward South Pass about 70 km (45 miles) west of Kabul. It flows in an easterly direction, past Kabul, and through [[Jalalabad]] city, and then on to [[Dakka]] where it enters Pakistani territory and finally runs into the Indus at [[Attock]].
The climate within region of Kabul is considered to be [[Desert|arid]] to [[semi-arid]] [[steppe]]. Because of the very low amounts of precipitation, especially from May to November, Kabul can be very dry and dusty. Extreme temperature changes occur from night to day, season to season, and from place to place. The chief characteristic of Afghanistan's climate is a blue cloudless sky with over 300 days of sunshine yearly. Even during the winter, skies usually remain clear between snowfalls, which are on average 15 to 30cm annually. The daily temperature in winter is -15 to -20 degrees [[Celsius]] (°C), and in summer +15 to +30 °C. The coldest month of the year is January when the average temperature is -12 °C, and the hottest month is July when the average is 25 °C. The maximum temperature has been recorded as +36.9 °C in July and the minimum as -21.7 °C in February.
== History ==
Kabul's history dates back more than 5,000 years. It was once the center of [[Zoroastrianism]] [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/1651814.stm] and subsequently also a home for thousands of [[Buddhists]] and [[Hindus]]. The [[Arabs]] tried to conquer the area in the [[7th century]], but they were defeated by the Hindu Shahi's of Kabul. The area was conquered by [[Mahmud of Ghazni|Mahmud Ghaznavid]] in 1002, when the Hindu Shahi King Jay Pala committed suicide. It was overshadowed by [[Ghazni]] and [[Herat]] until [[Babur]] made it his capital in 1504. It remained under [[Moghul]] rule until its capture in 1738 by [[Nader Shah]] of [[Khorasan|Persia]] followed by [[Ahmad Shah Durrani]]. It succeeded [[Kandahar]] as Afghanistan's capital in 1776.
During the [[Afghan Wars]] in 1839, the British army took over Kabul. In 1842, the withdrawing British troops were ambushed and almost annihilated after the Afghans had promised them safe conduct; in retaliation another British force partly burned Kabul. The British again occupied the city in 1879, after their resident staff were massacred there. On December 23, 1979, Soviet armed forces landed at [[Kabul International Airport]] to help bolster a Communist government.
Kabul became the Soviet command center for approximately 10 years during their stay in Afghanistan. In February 1989, Soviet forces withdrew from the city after they were defeated by the Afghan [[Mujahideen]]s. In spring of 1992 the government of [[Mohammad Najibullah]] collapsed, Kabul fell into the hands of [[Mujahideen]] forces. Destruction of the city increased as the coalition of the parties broke into rival warring factions, and much of Kabul was damaged. In 1996 the [[Taliban]] took over the city and started a new strict Islamic [[Sharia]] law which included Islamic schools, government, clothing, food, and recruitment to Al Qaeda, impacting the Afghan people's daily life. Some people happier with the strict Islamic laws, while some were unhappy.
On [[September 11]], [[2001]], the [[World Trade Center]] was hit by [[Osama bin Laden]]'s [[Al Qaeda]] group. On [[November 12]], [[2001]], American military forces finally took over [[Kabul City]], the Taliban forces fled by then. Kabul was under a new regime, and re-construction of new buildings, schools, and universities slowly began.
== Politics ==
Kabul has been long known for its politics and different [[warlord]]s. It was under the control of many political groups and warlords when Mohammad Najibullah's government collapsed. Kabul city was in the hands of many political groups who fought for power until it was taken over by the [[Taliban]] in 1996 and its politics was changed. Kabul's politics become more aligned with the Islamic regime and new laws were introduced by the Taliban. There was only one leader for Afghanistan [[Mohammed Omar|Mullah Omar]], the head of Taliban who ran Kabul's political party until the US invaded on [[October 7]], [[2001]]. New laws and humanities came in effect to enable Kabul to recover from the destruction caused by the Taliban. [[Loya Jirga]] took place to solve the current political problems and situations in Kabul and introduce new laws. Kabul citizens have been given the right to vote.[[Plik:George W. Bush on a lunch break with Afghan politicians in Kabul.jpg|thumb|right|260px|Politicians of Afghanistan having lunch with [[President of Afghanistan|President]] [[Hamid Karzai]] and visiting [[U.S. President]] [[George W. Bush]] in Kabul on March 1, 2006.]]
After being re-scheduled twice, Afghanistan's presidential [[elections]] were held on [[October 9]], [[2004]]. Over 8 million Afghans voted in the elections. The [[Joint Electoral Management]] Body of Afghanistan certified the elections on November 3rd, and declared [[Hamid Karzai]], the interim President, the winner with 55.4% of the vote. Karzai's strongest opponent, Yunis Qanooni, received 16.3% of the vote. The elections were not without controversy; allegations of fraud and ballot stuffing were brought up by many of the presidential candidates including Yunis Qanooni. Many felt that Hamid Karzai had an unfair advantage over the other candidates as he had access to financial and logistical resources that many of the other candidates did not have. A panel of international experts was set up to investigate the matter. The panel did find evidence of voting irregularities, however, they said that it was not enough to affect the outcome of the elections. Some people claimed that they were forced to vote for the current president and some claim that they were paid to do so.
With help from the United States and the United Nations, Afghanistan adopted its new constitution, establishing the country as an Islamic Republic, in early January 2004. According to the constitution, the Afghan government consists of a powerful and popularly elected President, two Vice Presidents, and a National Assembly consisting of two houses: the House of People ([[Wolesi Jirga]]), and the House of Elders ([[Meshrano Jirga]]). There is also an independent Judiciary branch consisting of the Supreme Court ([[Stera Mahkama]]), [[High Courts]] and [[Appeal Courts]]. The President appoints the members of the Supreme Court with the approval of the Wolesi Jirga. Assembly elections were planned for late 2005.
== Economy ==
Most of Kabul's economy depended on its tourists in the 1960s and 1970s. Kabul had textile, cotton production, and carpet production industries, but most of its economy came through tourism which it lost during its destruction. Kabul's produces include: natural gas, cotton, wool, carpets, agriculture, and some small production companies. Kabul has trade partnerships with the [[United Kingdom|UK]], [[France]], [[Germany]], [[USA]], [[India]], [[South Korea]], [[Turkmenistan]], [[Kenya]], [[Russia]], [[Pakistan]], [[China]], [[Iran]]. Kabul's economy was influenced by the American power and has increased by almost 3500% after being down for 25 years. A new currency was introduced to Afghans which helped the economy. New business was in the new regime. Many American industries were interested in the new Kabul and many new companies have since then opened their branches in Kabul. The Kabul City Centre Mall was built and has nearly 100 shops. [http://www.iwpr.net/?p=arr&s=f&o=257693&apc_state=heniarr200511]
The economy is in a boom level and is increasing dramatically. Home costs are going up as well as wages of employees. The cost of living has increased dramatically which is a problem for the non-educated Afghans, who cannot support themselves. The UN also helps Afghans in need of help by providing aid, food and school materials for schools. Many international aid organizations are contributing to the Afghanistan economy.
== Demographics ==
[[Plik:Kabul_districts.png|300px|thumb|right|Kabul province is made up of 15 districts.]]
Kabul is a mosaic of ethnic groups although the majority of its population speak the [[Persian language]] (usually of the [[Dari (Afghanistan)|Dari]] dialect). There is also a significant number of [[Pashto|Pashto-speakers]] as well. Bilingualism is common in the area because of the large movements of people from other provinces into Kabul Province.
The ethnic [[Tajiks]] make up the largest percentage of the population of the province, while there are other important minorities like [[Pashtun]]s, [[Hazara people|Hazaras]], [[Uzbeks]], [[Turkmen people|Turkmens]], [[Baloch]]is, [[Sikh]]s and [[Hindu]]s that are found mainly in the capital city.
About 85% of the population is [[Sunnite]] while 14% include [[Shi'a Islam|Shi'ites]]. [[Sikhism]] and [[Hinduism]] form the remaining 1%.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! District
! Headquarters
! Population<ref>Central Statistics Office of Afghanistan, [http://www.cso.gov.af/Census/census.htm LINK]</ref><ref>AIMS (Afghanistan Information Management Services), [[UNHCR]] District Profiles [http://www.aims.org.af/ssroots.aspx?seckeyt=373 LINK]</ref>
! Ethnic composition<ref>AIMS (Afghanistan Information Management Services), [[UNHCR]] District Profiles [http://www.aims.org.af/ssroots.aspx?seckeyt=373 LINK]</ref>
|-
| [[Bagrami (powiat)|Bagrami]]
| [[Bagrami]]
| 85,000
| 80% Pasztuni, 20% Tadżycy
|-
| [[Chahar Asyab (powiat)|Chahar Asyab]]
| [[Qalai Naeem]]
| 32,500
| Tadżycy, Paztuni i Hazarowie
|-
| [[Deh Sabz (powiat)|Deh Sabz]]
| [[Tarakhel]]
| 47,900
| 70% Pasztuni, 30% Tadżycy
|-
| [[Farza (powiat)|Farza]]
| [[Dehnawe Farza]]
| 19,100
| Mieszanka tadżycko pasztuńska
|-
| [[Guldara (powiat)|Guldara]]
| [[Guldara]]
| 20,300
| 50% Tadżycy, 50% Pasztuni
|-
| [[Istalif (powiat)|Istalif]]
| [[Istalif]]
| 29,800
| Tadżycy oraz Pasztuni i Hazarowie
|-
| [[Kabul]] (Stolica)
| [[Kabul]] (Stolica)
| 2,536,300
| 45% Tadżycy, 25% Pasztuni, 25% Hazarowie, 2% Uzbecy, 1% Beludżowie, 1% Turkmeni, 1% Inni<ref>{{cite map|publisher= National Geographic Society|title= Ethnic Groups |url= http://magma.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/0311/feature2/images/mp_download.2.pdf|edition=|section=|accessdate= }}</ref>
|-
| [[Kalakan (powiat)|Kalakan]]
| [[Kalakan]]
| 26,900
| 90% Tadżycy, 10% Pasztuni
|-
| [[Khaki Jabbar (powiat)|Khaki Jabbar]]
| [[Khak-i Jabbar]]
| 75,000
| 95% Pasztuni, 5% Tadżycy
|-
| [[Mir Bacha Kot (powiat)|Mir Bacha Kot]]
| [[Mir Bacha Kot]]
| 46,300
| 90% Tadżycy, 10% Pasztuni
|-
| [[Mussahi (powiat)|Mussahi]]
| [[Mussahi]]
| 30,000
| 90% Pasztuni, 10% TadŻycy
|-
| [[Paghman (powiat)|Paghman]]
| [[Paghman]]
| 150,000
| 70% Pasztuni, 30% Tadżycy
|-
| [[Qarabagh (powiat), Kabul|Qarabagh]]
| [[Qara Bagh,Kabul Province|Qara Bagh]]
| 67,700
| 60% Tadżycy, 40% Pasztuni
|-
| [[Shakardara (powiat)|Shakardara]]
| [[Shakar Dara]]
| 72,900
| 90% Tadżycy, 10% Pasztuni
|-
| [[Surobi (powiat)|Surobi]]
| [[Surobi]]
| 150,000
| 90% Pasztuni
|}
== Transportation ==
Transportation in Kabul is improving as the numbers of new vehicles and experienced drivers are increasing. There is public transportation service in the Kabul vicinity, but many roads are in disrepair. Drivers are also impeded by the large number of cyclists. More vehicles are seen in the city because people are purchasing cars. Taxi cabs are found everywhere in the city, also in most of the districts of Kabul.
Kabul's Milli Bus (National Bus) system, which has about 800 buses, provides service to the city and nearby areas. There are several new highways in the province, and the government has scheduled to rebuild most of the smaller roads. Funding for the roads comes from current drivers who must pay toll charges for driving on highways and major roads. The money is collected by the government through issuing motorists monthly, quarterly or annual inspection certificates that are affixed to the windshield of their vehicles.
Trucks are used to transport goods from one district to another, or to other cities of the country. The Afghan government, with the help of foreign companies or organizations, have begun work on many of Kabul's roads. Auto companies like [[Honda]], [[Toyota]], [[Ford Motor Company]], and [[Chevrolet]] have also been reintroduced in Kabul.
== Education ==
Kabul is Afghanistan's center for education. People from all the provinces of the country come to Kabul for education. There are many schools and universities that have opened doors for men and women. In the 1970s, about 55% of Kabul's population was educated without materials or proper learning resources to get a proper education. Most of the young children are sent to work by their parents to support their living costs. The education rate has declined dramatically during the last 20 years. Most of the schools in Kabul were set as battle points during the wars and have been demolished.
Kabul's education level is going up now by the help of many international organizations, and more people are being sent back to schools to get a degree. The value of education is being reintroduced in the communities, and they are encouraged to send their children to schools for a better education and a better life. Most of the people of Afghanistan, who took refuge in Pakistan, Iran and India, have returned to Kabul with their degrees and been able to obtain better jobs. Most of them are contributing their knowledge to the community by opening new courses and institutes. According to [[UNICEF]], Kabul's education level is in a boom now and is getting better and better.
=== Szkoły wyzsze ===
* [[Kabul University]]
* [[Polytechnical University of Kabul]]
* [[American University of Afghanistan]]
== Sports ==
[[Plik:Kabul Football.jpg|250px|thumb|Teens playing soccer at Ghazi Stadium.]]
Kabul is the center of annual [[Buzkashi]] and [[Soccer]] tournaments, where teams from all over [[Afghanistan]], [[Pakistan]], [[Iran]], [[Uzbekistan]], and [[Tajikistan]] participate. Sports is a daily routine for employees in Afghanistan, when they all join each other in tournaments and matches, specially soccer games. Afghanistan's Soccer Team also participated in many Asian Soccer Leagues. Many Afghans who were living as [[Afghan refugees|refugees]] in [[Pakistan]] and [[India]] returned back to their country, and they brought the game of [[cricket]] with them. Afghanistan now has national Cricket Team that plays internationally. They play mostly against Pakistani and Hindi Teams as well as some Arab nations in the Middle East.
There are [[Boxing]], [[Taekwondo]], [[Volleyball]], and [[Kung fu]] teams in Kabul, which participate in tournaments locally and go on tours to other Asian countries. One of the oldest and most popular stadiums in Kabul is [[Ghazi Stadium]], where tournaments, concerts, and national celebrations take place, however the city has lost most of the stadiums it previously had. Ghazi Stadium is currently going through a reconstruction programme whereby a new design and a new system will be established for the stadium. There is also another new stadium under construction near Kabul City. Schools and universities encourage participation in team sports, and there is a group of Afghans are being trained in Kabul for the next [[Olympic Games]].
== Zobacz również ==
* [[Kabulistan]]
* [[Kabul Golf Club]]
== References ==
{{Przypisy}}
== Przypisy ==
{{Przypisy}}
== Linki zewnętrzne ==
{{Commons2|Kabul Province}}
* [http://www.aisk.org/misc/woik2007issue42.pdf What's On In Kabul (pdf format)]
* [http://www.afghanistan-photos.com/crbst_5.html Historical Photos of Kabul]
* [http://www.zharov.com/dupree/chapter04.html Historical Guide to Afghanistan (Kabul)]
* [http://www.kabulcaravan.com/kabul.php Kabul Caravan]
=== Foreign missions in Kabul ===
* [http://afghanistan.usembassy.gov US Embassy]
* [http://www.britishembassy.gov.uk/servlet/Front?pagename=OpenMarket/Xcelerate/ShowPage&c=Page&cid=1079976688531 British Embassy]
* [http://www.kabul.diplo.de/en/02/Botschafter__und__Abteilungen/Behoerdenleiter__und__Abteilungen__Unterbereich.html German Embassy]
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